Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

1. Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

Epistemology is the study of what and how we come to know.  Further research states that it is our means for acquiring knowledge and how we can differentiate between truth and falsehood. Instructional methods or theories are a set of principles on which the practice of an activity is based.  What differs among particular theories on learning is how they describe the observed outcomes of learning and how they explain the learning process.  Most psychological theories define learning as a persisting change in human performance potential referring to the fact that what is learned may not always be exhibited immediately.  It is also defined by how it is thought to occur because it comes as a consequence. The author states that the underlying assumption about ways of learning is that instruction will bring about learning.

The different principles of learning include:

The behavioral learning theory focuses on instructional feedback.  The result of immediate feedback encourages correct responses and fewer incorrect responses. 
The information processing theory is simply processing information.  It is regarded as the three memory system sensory, short-term and long-term memory.
The schema theory organizes information.
The cognitive load theory calls for learning task in sequential ways to reduce overload.
The situated learning theory is knowledge accumulates in meaningful actions. The knowledge accrues form the learner’s participation in the practices of a community or organized by the members of the community.
Gagne’s theory focused on instruction and how what is known about learning can be systematically related to the design of instruction.  He believed that individuals learned through cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. 
Constructivism is a collection of views that states that learning is a matter of going from the inside out.  Individuals generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas.

 2. Chapters in this section discuss three contrasting epistemic stances: positivist, relativist, and contextualist (or hermeneutical). Positivists believe that the only truth or knowledge is objective truth. Relativists don’t believe that objective truth is possible and that all knowledge is subjective to perception or relative to a particular frame of reference. Contextualists believe that truth or knowledge is relative to context rather than individual, subjective understanding. While designers and educators with a positivist stance generally apply behaviorist principles to the design and development of instruction, those with either a contextualist or relativist epistemological framework employ constructivist theories and methods. Reflect on whether your stance is primarily positivist, relativist, or contextualist. Then, identify an instance when your perspective or stance as a learner conflicted with that of your instructor. Describe the conflict that you experienced and analyze whether opposing epistemic stances may have been at the heart of the conflict.

I believe that I am a contextualist because of how I view situations at the time that they occur.  Contextualists believe that truth or knowledge is relative to context rather than individual, subjective understanding.  I don’t use the same structure to teach math as I do reading.  I also don’t teach each child in the same manner.  If I have a child who is struggling, I change my routine and I provide the struggling child with intervention.  I have not had a conflict with an instructor, but I have had conflicting views with the way administrators are steering our instruction.  I believe that teachers and students should be stress free in the learning process. I believe that children who are struggling should have many opportunities to practice many times before the behavior is observed.  For example, many administrators feel that students should just easily adapt to reading just because they have been introduced to words. Their is a process that young children must encounter before learning to read.  Learning is a process, and their in not just one way to acquire knowledge. An instructional approach may work for one individual, but may require something new for the other. 

3. Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

Behaviorists’ problem-solve by providing the opportunity for immediate feedback to increase the number of correct answers and reduce the amount of incorrect answers. They instruct learners while the behavior is fresh and can be redirected. They also provide opportunities for practice in instruction as they learn.

Constructivist problem-solve by engaging the learning in activities authentic to the discipline in which they are learning. They provide for collaboration and the opportunity to engage in multiple perspectives on what is being learned.  Constructivists support learners in setting their own goals and regulating their own learning.  Lastly, they encourage learners to reflect on what and how they are learning.
The two theories differ in their approaches to learning, however, they both have positive outcomes.  Students who have the opportunity to practice learning and receive immediate feedback ultimately reach their goal.  Students who are provided the opportunity to collaborate with peers, set their own goals, and express what they are learning and how are ultimately successful.  Either approach whether behaviorist or constructivism encourages learners to be successful and strive to attain their goals.